The Kitchen

Vitamina T : Totopos and the Chilaquil

What constitutes “real” Mexican food? Is it the ingredients? Is it the technique?

My first introduction to Mexican food (in Australia) as a child (so we’re talking the late 1970’s here) was through the Old El Paso brand.

These were filled with a spiced, minced beef
Minced (or ground) beef is not common in Mexico

Now, although certainly not from the heart of México, this range of products was created in its northern reaches in land that (politically speaking) was once Mexican but is now part of the southern states of el otro lado (1) and which is still quite Mexican (culturally speaking). These kinds of products are not unusual in that they are a result of the evolution of the industrial age and evolved at a time when technology was enabling the preservation of foodstuffs which where then able to be transported far from their origins.

  1. el otro lado – “the other side” referring to the United States of America. The “other side” used to be a river; the Rio Grande (on the U.S.A. side) or the Rio Bravo del Norte – or just the Rio Bravo (on the Mexican side). The river has now been superseded by a wall whose initial construction was approved under President George H.W. Bush, initiated by President Bill Clinton in 1993 and was “completed” during the reign President Barack Obama in 2011 (Farley 2011).
On the Border : A Cal-Mex styled restaurant in Western Australia

Old El Paso has existed as a brand since 1938 and evolved from a company that started canning pinto beans and tomatoes in 1917. 60 years later I was eating it in Australia as a child and it was my first food memory of Mexico.

Now this is most certainly not Mexican food. Or is it?

It was my first introduction to a corn tortilla, albeit a bastard hybrid one in a form not familiar to your average Mexican (especially in the 1970’s) and one far removed from a freshly cooked nixtamalized corn tortilla hot off the comal. This type of hard taco shell was created in the U.S.A.

Now don’t get me wrong , Mexicans have been frying stuff ever since they got access to cooking oil which was not really a thing prehispanically speaking. One thing that benefitted from a good frying and is well known throughout México is the day old tortilla.

Now a tortilla is to be treated in the same manner a Frenchman would treat his baguette. They are to be purchased daily, preferably shortly after being baked and shortly before the meal they are to be eaten at, and maybe multiple times per day depending on how many meals you plan to eat. Yesterdays tortillas, like yesterdays baguette, are too stale to eat. However, if you take yesterdays tortilla, cut it into strips or wedges, and fry it in oil you have created totopos. (a whole fried tortilla is called a tostada – which technically you called also call the U shaped fried taco shells too I guess. Or not).

To clarify.

Tostadas. Si.
Tostadas. No.

Totopo : derived from the Nahuatl totopotza (1) and totopochtli (2).

  1. to make something crunchy by toasting it or chewing it loudly (Karttunen); to toast something (Molina)
  2. something toasted, crunchy, noisy to eat (Karttunen)

Now , just to get something straight. Although these are technically totopos….

….they are not the same as these……

….which are stale tortillas cooked in oil…….

….and they will not perform in the same manner when cooking them in the following dish.

Now having said that, I am not disparaging the use of commercially produced totopos (or in my homeland CC’s) as these may be the only ingredient you have to hand and they will do in a pinch. You could in fact make some dishes entirely from jarred/canned/packaged ingredients as some of our incarcerated kin might be forced to do. I’ll include a couple of “jailhouse” recipes at the bottom of the Post.

It means Corn Chips (if you hadn’t already figured that)

Now to get to the meat so to speak. The title of this Post refers to a dish known as chilaquiles and this dish comes from a family of inter-related dishes all featuring totopos as a main ingredient.

The first time I came across the word “chilaquiles” was likely in one of my books by Diana Kennedy. In her first book (Kennedy 1975) she refers to the meaning of the word as being “broken up pieces of old sombrero” which does somewhat describe the colour (and even texture) of totopos (or broken up day old tortilla – without the frying). By her later books (Kennedy 2013) she is now referring it to mean quilitl in a chile broth “chilaqulitl” (chil-a-quilitl which means “herbs or greens in chile broth).
Now I like this meaning as it encompasses my passion the quelites. I have searched for a quelite based chilaquil (1) recipe but have not had much luck as of yet. If you know one then please send it my way. Even Diana Kennedy, who is celebrated for recording recipes – some of which would now be lost to history if not for her work – did not publish a chil-a-quilitl recipe.

  1. Chilaquil (singular) chilaquiles (plural) – much like the tamal (singular) and tamales (plural) (although in Nahuatl tamalli is singular)

There is some disagreement on this meaning so lets investigate its etymology a little.

The origin of the word chilaquiles is believed to stem from the Nahuatl language and (depending on the version) derives from….
• Chili (chilli/chile)
• Atl (water)
• Quilitl (wild greens/edible plant/vegetable)

This is the definition you’ll find on Wikipedia and it is oft repeated particularly by food related websites.

The “quilitl” part of the translation has been rejected by Kintana (1997) (1). There was no alternate translation offered though.

  1. Fray Ángel María Garibay Kintana (18 June 1892 – 19 October 1967) was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest, philologist, linguist, historian, and scholar of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, specifically of the Nahua peoples of the central Mexican highlands. He is particularly noted for his studies and translations of conquest-era primary source documents written in Classical Nahuatl. He was also the teacher of one Miguel León-Portilla (22 February 1926 – 1 October 2019) a well known Mexican anthropologist and historian known for his work on Aztec culture.

Other translations veer away from the quilitl definition (although no-one argues about the Chile part) and the quilitl (or -aquil/-aquilli/-aquilitl) part can be referred to as meaning…

• Aqui-lli – with derives from the verb aquia which means ‘submerge in’ (1)…..which makes sense as the totopos are “submerged” and cooked briefly (2) in a chile “broth” (well, more like a thick salsa).

  1. aquia. Principal English Translation : to put something into something else; to put oneself into, to make enter; to put something on or wear (in reflexive); to add something to what is being said. https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/aquia#:~:text=Headword%3A-,aquia.,through%20a%20hole%20(see%20Molina)
  2. the cooking of chilaquiles is done to ones preference (much like another Mexican prehispanic staple atole. See Atole de Grano for a little more insight on this preference). Chilaquiles can be cooked for a shorter period so your totopos are still crunchy or for a longer period so that the totopos become soft and chewy. I aim for a combination of both.

The Merriam Webster dictionary expounds on this a little….
• Nahuatl *chīlaquilli, from chīl-, stem of chīlli CHILI + -aquilli, noun derivative from the passive stem of aqui “enter, fit in,” aquia “cause to enter, insert”

…and Nanosh (2017) notes of the “chilaquil” that it is a “tortilla in a chile broth”. This definition is reinforced somewhat by the Nahuatl “chilatl” which refers to water flavoured with chile (1). The work by Nanosh is excellent and connects Sopa Azteca (or sopa de tortilla) with chilaquiles through class distinctions in Mexico during the 1800’s where he notes that in the work of José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (2) that chilaquiles are “described as a (less sophisticated) variety of sopa de tortilla (tortilla soup)” and that this was done so as to “to associate chilaquiles to the poor and elevate sopa de tortilla for the more respectable”. This was occurring at a time when the ruling classes of México were trying to define themselves on a world stage and were embracing everything European and trying to cover the “embarrassment ” of their indigeneity resulting in a phenomenon known as “Malinchismo” (3).

  1. Chilatl – aguachil, o agua de axi : Principal English Translation: chili pepper water (see Molina).
  2. The “Mangy Parrot” is the nickname of the anti-hero protagonist of this book whose (mis)adventures the book follows. Aside from narrating the mischief the books hero gets up to it is filled the Mexican folklore and traditions as they existed at the peak of the Mexican colonial heyday.
  3. See my Post La Malinche for more info on this.
1. Atl
2. Chilatl
  1. atl – Principal English Translation: water; a body of water, such as a lake, river, or ocean; floods, liquid beverage, even chocolate; urine. This image from the Codex Mendoza shows water as part of the toponymic glyph for the region known as Acocozpan (“In the very yellow water” atl – water : cocoztic – very yellow : pan – in/place of). There’s a “piss” joke in here somewhere but I’m keeping it to myself.
  2. chilatl – aguachil, o agua de axi : Principal English Translation: chili pepper water

If chilaquiles are for the poor I wonder what de Lizardi would think about nachos?

So here is the family of which I speak.

Sopa Azteca (Sope de Tortilla)
Chilaquiles Verdes at Sanborns Restaurant
Nachos at Guzman y Gomez (Australia)

Now before I venture any further. What did that Frenchman do with his stale baguette?

Soupe à l’oignon gratinée, or as they say outside of France, French onion soup.
This dish is, in it’s bones, a sopa de tortilla.

At their heart sopa de tortilla, chilaquiles, and nachos are THE SAME DISH. The only thing that differs (apart from topping preferences) is the amount of liquid added to the dish. At its most basic you make a salsa; you dilute the salsa to the required consistency; you add totopos and the desired toppings; consume.

Click on image for a larger pic if you’re having trouble reading

The salsa can be either red (rojo) or green (verde). The sopa receta above (from the Hispanic Food Network – recipe instructions below) is a nice rojo made with guajillo chiles and roma tomatoes. Then 6 Cups of chicken broth are added. Last of all the totopos (which in this case have been cut into strips before frying) are added. This keeps them crunchy.

Chilaquiles differ from the sopa in that once you’ve made the salsa you dont add any stock. Instead you add the totopos, cook to the desired consistency (maybe adding a little more salsa if it gets a little dry – again, preference) and then you add your extra ingredients and consume immediately. Below is a recipe for a Jalisco style chilaquiles rojo.

Chilaquiles Jalisco Style

Ingredients

  • 2 ripe, red tomatoes
  • 3 cloves garlic
  • 1 guajillo chile
  • 2 ancho chiles
  • 1 medium onion (cut in half)
  • 1 Tablespoon vegetable oil (for cooking the salsa)
  • 1 cup vegetable oil (for frying your totopos)
  • 10 corn tortillas (cut into wedges – these are your totopos)
  • salt & pepper al gusto (to taste)

Extras….

  • Shredded chicken
  • Queso fresco (crumbled)
  • White onion (thinly sliced)
  • crema

Method

Make the Salsa:

  1. Grill tomatoes, onions and garlic on a hot comal until tatemado **SEE NOTES**
  2. Remove the seeds, and veins of your chiles and fry with 1 tablespoon of vegetable oil until fragrant. Take care not to burn them. Place the chiles in a bowl and cover with boiled water. Allow to soak for 15-20 minutes until they soften
  3. Place all ingredients in a food processor or a blender & puree. (or use your molcajete to grind them to a paste)

Make the totopos

  1. In a separate pan heat 1 cup of vegetable oil.
  2. Fry tortilla quarters in the hot oil until crisp. Take care not to burn them (or even cook them too dark).
  3. Cool on paper towels to drain off any excess oil.

To complete the dish

  1. Pour your pureed salsa into a pan and heat until bubbling
  2. Add your totopos. Cook over a low heat , stirring gently, until you reach the texture you like.
  3. Add the shredded chicken here if using
  4. Top with sliced onion and crumbled queso fresco (and a drizzle of crema – or dollop of sour cream if you so desire)

Eat immediately

**NOTES**

Tatemar is a cooking technique vital to Mexican cuisine. Go here for more info on this technique….Cooking Technique : Tatemar : “Chef, you realise you’re burning that?”*

The Eternal Argument. Rojo or Verde? (apparently there are stats on this)

These clowns have managed to reverse the images though.
Almost neck and neck. Rojos get over the line (in these stats anyway)

I’m a verde man myself (which is why I’m a little disappointed that it doesn’t involve quelites as per the name)

Chilaquiles Verde

Ingredients

  • 450g (about 1 pound tomate verde), husked and rinsed (about 10 med-large tomatillos)
  • 3 jalapeños, stemmed and seeded
  • ½ medium white onion
  • water, as needed
  • ½ cup cilantro
  • 2 cloves garlic
  • 1 tablespoon lime juice (about ½ lime)
  • 1 teaspoon salt
  • 12 corn tortillas
  • 4 tablespoons vegetable oil, for frying

For serving

  • cotija cheese
  • chopped cilantro
  • diced white onions
  • sour cream or Mexican crema
  • fried eggs

Method

  1. In a medium pot, add the tomatillos, jalapeños, onion, and enough water to completely cover them. Bring to a boil over medium-high heat, reduce heat to low, cover, and simmer for 8 minutes.
  2. Using a slotted spoon, transfer the tomatillos, jalapeños, and onion to a blender. Add the cilantro, garlic, lime juice, and salt and blend until smooth. Taste and add more salt as needed.
  3. Stack the corn tortillas on top of each other and cut them into eighths to create small triangle wedges. Line a large plate with paper towels and set aside.
  4. Working in batches, heat 2 tablespoons of the vegetable oil in a large sauté pan or skillet over medium-high heat.
  5. Add half of the tortillas and fry for 8 minutes, stirring every minute or so, until they are crispy. Transfer them to plate lined with paper towels to drain any excess oil. Repeat the frying process until all your totopos are cooked.
  6. Add all of the fried totopo back to the pan and pour the salsa verde on top. Gently toss together to coat.
  7. Garnish with cotija cheese, cilantro, onions, and crema and serve immediately

Why stop there though? Chilaquiles don’t have to be limited by these two colours. Try these……..

….or we could round out the Mexican flag and make a white chilaquil.

Chilaquiles blancos

Chilaquiles Blancos (White chilaquiles)

(adapted – slightly – from the Recetas Nestle website. Most of the recipes you’ll find online are an adaptation of this recipe so I’m not sure of its exact provenance.)

  • 1 Can of NESTLÉ Media Crema (Half Cream) – substitute with sour cream or crème fraîche (I have seen some recipes use yoghurt here – not for me though)
  • 1 Can of Carnation Evaporated Milk (approx. 1.5 cups)
  • 3/4 Cup drained yellow corn kernels (or use fresh shucked kernels)
  • 1 Cup of Poblano Chile rajas (roasted, peeled strips) SEE***NOTES***
  • 1 Bag of totopos (as many as is needed)
  • 1 cup shredded roasted chicken breast
  • 1/4 teaspoon of salt
  • 1 Tablespoon of chicken bouillon powder
  • 2 Teaspoons of Butter
  • 250 grams of grated Manchego cheese (in Australia fresh pecorino, gouda, or havarti will get you very close to the Mexican Manchego cheese)
  • 1/2 teaspoon of onion powder

Method

1.  For the sauce, blend the Media Crema with the Evaporated Milk, the chicken bouillon powder, the salt, and the onion powder. Set aside.

2.  In a separate pan, heat the butter, add the corn kernels and your poblano rajas; cook for 5 minutes, add the blended white sauce mix and heat until it begins to thicken.

3.  Add the chicken and cheese and heat briefly until the cheese begins to melt. Add the totopos and cook to your preference. Top with a fried egg and some thinly sliced onion. Serve immediately.

***NOTES***

The Poblano chile is a fresh chile (the dried version of this chile is called the Ancho chile) and is likely the most commonly used fresh chile (after the Jalapeno) in México. See my Post Rajas. Poblanos (por supuesto) for a rundown on this chile and how it is used.

Now for something a little unusual…..

Chilaquiles Rellenos (Stuffed Chilaquiles)

Servings: 4 approx.

Ingredients

  • 1 kilo of white masa (nixtamalized corn dough)
  • 100 grams of water (=100ml)
  • 300 grams of queso de Oaxaca (SEE***NOTES***)
  • 300 grams of asiento de chicharrón or chicharrón prensado (SEE***NOTES***)
  • oil for frying

For the sauce:

  • 600g (ripe) red tomato – use Romas
  • 5 chile de árbol
  • 2 (dried) chipotle chiles
  • 2 garlic cloves
  • 1/4 of (medium) white onion
  • 4 tablespoons of oil
  • 3 sprigs of epazote
  • 2 cups of water or chicken broth

To accompany:

  • Thinly sliced white onion
  • crumbled cheese (queso fresco or cotija)
  • Crema (or substitute with sour cream or crème fraiche )
  • Avocado

Method

  1. Mix the masa with the 100 grams of water and knead well. You should have a softish and well hydrated dough. If, when you press your dough into the little tortillas required later, the tortillas have cracked edges the dough is likely too dry. Cover your masa with a damp teatowel when not using it as it may dry out.
  2. Mix together the cheese and chicharrón, you can cut the cheese into small pieces instead of shredding it .
  3. Take small balls of the dough (approximately 20 grams – about golfball sized), flatten very carefully and form a small thick tortilla.
  4. Place a tablespoon of filling in the centre of each tortilla, close giving a triangular shape.
  5. Heat the oil and fry each chilaquil at a moderate temperature and, once it is golden, remove it and place it aside to drain off any excess oil.
  6. To make the salsa: on a comal (or in an unoiled pan) tatemar the tomatoes, garlic and onion. Remove when the ingredients are cooked and slightly charred.
  7. In 2 tablespoons of oil, fry the whole chiles (seeds and all). If you want a less spicy sauce, remove the veins and seeds from all the chiles before frying them.
  8. Blend together the garlic, onion, tomato, chiles and water (or chicken broth).
  9. Heat the remaining oil in a saucepan and when hot add the blended salsa, fry and add the salt and the epazote. Cook until thick enough (this will entirely be up to the cooks preference but you don’t want it to be watery). Remove the sprig of epazote before using the salsa.
  10. Arrange your chilaquiles on a plate or in a bowl and bathe with the salsa, top with slices of onion, avocado (if using) and crumbled cheese. Drizzle with the crema or maybe a dollop of sour cream/crème fraiche

***NOTES**

Queso de Oaxaca – if you cannot find this cheese then substitute with the following options

  • Buffalo Mozzarella: Best substitute.
  • Muenster Cheese: Most similar flavour.
  • String Cheese: A readily available substitute.
  • Queso Asadero: Closest Mexican cheese substitute.

Chicharrón is a popular Mexican snack that consists of pork rinds or pork skin that have been deep fried. They are crispy, salty, and have a delicious meaty flavour. Chicharron is often served as a “botana” or little snack to have before a meal, something small to share while you wait for the main course. You can also find homemade chicharrones sold in Mexican market stalls. They come in big pieces or sheets, that you can break into smaller bits and enjoy with a freshly made salsa and some lime. There are a couple of varieties of chicharrón that we can use in this recipe.

  • Asiento de chicharrón : these are the leftovers obtained from frying carnitas and pork rinds. They are tiny pieces of meat with fatwhich have been fried to a golden crispy texture. When the skin that will be made into pork rinds is separated from the rest of the animal, it is cut with some fat, and usually tiny pieces of pork meat.
  • Chicharrón prensado is a preparation derived from traditional chicharron, where small pieces of pork meat are parboiled with the fried skin, but seasoned with herbs which cause a characteristic reddish colour. Afterward, it is drained and pressed to remove excess fat.

Other recipes mentioned in the text.

Hispanic Food Network Sopa de Tortilla

Cooking Instructions (taken straight from their site – see Website References for the address)

  1. Using a sharp knife or kitchen scissors slice open one side of the guajillo chiles; open up butterfly style to remove seeds. Place opened guajillo’s on a hot skillet or comal and lightly blister each side. Do not burn the chiles as they will taste bitter. Submerge roasted chiles in hot water to rehydrate and soften.
  2. Roast the garlic, onion and tomatoes on the same hot pan until browned and softened.
  3. Place tomatoes in blender with the garlic, onion, salt, and rehydrated chiles, puree until thoroughly blended.
  4. Heat 1 tablespoon of oil in a large saucepan over medium high heat. Place a strainer over the pot; strain the puree into the oil, being careful not to splatter. Cook the puree for a few minutes stirring constantly. Lower heat, continue to stir until mixture thickens and changes colour and darkens.
  5. Add the remaining chicken stock and epazote. Return to boil, season with salt and pepper and simmer covered for 1/2 hour.
  6. Cut tortillas in half and cut each half into strips. Heat 1/2 inch oil in a skillet. When hot, fry the strips until golden brown and crispy. Drain on paper towels.
  7. Before serving soup add the fried tortilla strips. Garnish each bowl with avocado chunks and cheese. Offer crema and limes for each diner

As an added bonus (?) I now include two prison inspired recipes. One comes from the T.V. show “Orange is the New Black” (1) and the other form a series of recipes published on the Corrections1 website (2). These recipes are created by cooks with very few resources at hand and, in some cases, only have access to commercially packaged products and limited cooking equipment (if any).

  1. This T.V. series ran for 7 seasons from 2013 to 2019 and was based on a memoir written by Piper Kerman “Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women’s Prison” published in 2010. This book tells the story of Piper who spent time in a women’s prison after being convicted for money laundering and drug trafficking.
  2. Corrections1 Mission Statement : KEEPING CORRECTIONS OFFICERS INFORMED AND CONNECTED : Our mission is to provide the information and resources correctional officers need to make their facilities safe and controlled environments. We do this by providing a secure and reliable online environment for the exchange of information between corrections officers, administrators and departments from across the United States and around the world.  https://www.corrections1.com/info/about/

Cheesey Chicken Chilaquiles with Microwave Fried Onions (Orange is the New Black)

Ingredients:

  • Leftover chicken
  • squeeze cheese
  • corn chips
  • Sazon or other Latin spice mix
  • Onions
  • whatever other veggies and herbs you can get your hands on

Supplies : Fork, knife, bowl, plate, a microwave

Method

  1. Crush up the chips and mix them in a bowl with water until the mixture is soft (but not mushy). Microwave it in 15-second increments if you add too much water.
  2. Chop up the onion. (Kerman notes that this is difficult—but not impossible—to do with a plastic knife.) Put the onion in the other bowl and add a generous amount of Sazon. If you’ve got another pat of margarine lying around, throw that in too.
  3. Fry the onions in the microwave by microwaving the bowl for 2-3 minutes, stopping to stir the mixture halfway through cooking time.
  4. Pile the leftover chicken, the fried onions, and any other veggies you can find into the bowl with the chilaquiles in it. Add Sazon to taste.
  5. Top with a generous ribbon of squeeze cheese, any herbs you have, and maybe some more Sazon

Using similar ingredients we will now make tamales. (Corrections1)

Jailhouse Tamales (Version I)

Ingredients

  • Meat stick or beef jerky sausage – 1 Oz
  • Warm water – ½ cup
  • Corn chips – 1 large bag
  • Cheese curls or processed cheese food – 1/3 cup

Supplies : warm water and a sturdy plastic bag

Method

  1. Amalgamate the corn chips and cheese in the one-chip bag.
  2. Make the fine blend by crushing.
  3. Cut the meat stick properly and add it up with a blend.
  4. To make it shape into a tamale, stream some water into the mixture.
  5. Keep the bag under hot water to cook after closing the bag tightly.
  6. Enjoy the taste of your tamales.

Jailhouse Tamales (Version Dos)

This one is truly post-apocalyptic recipe creation at its finest

Crunch up a bag of Fritos corn chips and a bag of spicy hot Cheetos (Doritos or any other spicy chip can also be substituted). Mix the chips together into one bag and add enough hot water to create a thick mush. Kneading the bag, drain off any excess water and roll the mix up inside the chip bag into the shape of a traditional tamale. Let sit for about five minutes, remove the bag and add some hot sauce.

Now, before we go anywhere I just want to briefly mention nachos. These are the ‘driest” of the family.

At their most basic. Put your totopos on a plate, cover them with what ever you like (shredded chicken, taco spiced minced beef, onions, frijoles, olives (eeew), whatever floats your boat, cover with salsa of your choice (straight out of the jar if that’s all you got) sprinkle with some shredded (grated) cheese and microwave or melt the cheese under the grill. if you want to be flash then top with a little sour cream, avocado or maybe pico de gallo.

References

  • Barros, Christina (editor) El cocinero mexicano: México, 1831, Volume 1 : Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (Mexico). Dirección General de Culturas Populares, ISBN 9701848748, 9789701848746
  • Casa de Lanuza, Mendía y C. (1828) Arte nuevo de cocina y repostería acomodado al uso mexicano. https://utsa.primo.exlibrisgroup.com/permalink/01UTXSANT_INST/15julip/alma9938159877304621 (from the Diana Kennedy collection – tx716-m4-a784-1828) (Images chila1-chila2-chila3)
  • Dehouve, Danièle (2018). THE RULES OF CONSTRUCTION OF AN AZTEC DEITY: CHALCHIUHTLICUE, THE GODDESS OF WATER. Ancient Mesoamerica, (), 1–22. doi:10.1017/S0956536118000056
  • Farley, Robert (May 16, 2011). “Obama says the border fence is ‘now basically complete'”. Politifact. Retrieved July 27, 2019.
  • Fernández de Lizardi, José Joaquín (1842) El Periquillo Sarniento. Tomo I / por El Pensador Mexicano; corregida, ilustrada con notas, y adornada con sesenta láminas finas (The Mangy Parrot. Volume I / by The Mexican Thinker; corrected, illustrated with notes, and embellished with sixty fine plates) : Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library, 2001
  • Karttunen, Frances. An Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatl (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 249. https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/totopochtli
  • Kennedy, Diana (1975) The Tortilla Book (1stEd) ISBN 10006012346X, 0060123478
  • KENNEDY, D. (2013). My Mexico: A Culinary Odyssey with Recipes. University of Texas Press. https://doi.org/10.7560/748408
  • Kintana, Garibay (1997) En torno al español hablado en México : Volume 124 of Biblioteca del estudiante Universitario : UNAM : ISBN 9683661475, 9789683661470
  • León-Portilla, Miguel. “Ángel Ma. Garibay K.(1892–1992), en el centenario de su nacimiento.” Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 22 (1992)
  • Lucas, Nanosh (2017) SOUP AT THE DISTINGUISHED TABLE IN MEXICO CITY, 1830-1920 : A Thesis : Bowling Green State University
  • de Molina, Alonso. Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana y mexicana y castellana, 1571, part 2, Nahuatl to Spanish, f. 151r. col. 1. https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/totopotza
  • Starr, Frederick, Aztec Place-Names. Their Meaning and Mode of Composition. : Selected from the Spanish of Agustin de la Rosa, Antonio Penafiel and Cecilio A. Robelo. (Chicago : Priv. print. by the author, 1920.)

Websites

Images

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